Sustainable development

Air conditioning/ventilation

Architects' Journal

AJ Focus Heating, ventilation and energy management. AJ Focus 10.1999, 1999
Describes air-to-air heat exchangers suitable for the domestic energy management market; considers the impact of the Home Energy Conservation Act of April 1996 and the use of condensing boilers to cut gas consumption; reviews the range of radiator options now available; describes mixed mode ventilation systems - as used in Ove Arup and Partners offices in Cardiff; use of chilled beams and ceilings; new air conditioning units and other techniques for cooling buildings. Gives manufacturers' listing.
View Heating, ventilation and energy management. AJ Focus 10.1999 in The Construction Information Service

Building Research Energy Conservation Support Unit

Good Practice Case Study 20 Refuge house, Wilmslow, Cheshire. New owner occupied offices designed for both natural ventilation and air conditioning, 1991
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Good Practice Case Study 21 Energy efficiency in offices. A new high quality air conditioned office with low energy costs, 1991
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Good Practice Guide 71 Selecting air conditioning systems. A guide for building clients and their advisers, 1993
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General Information Leaflet 9 Domestic ventilation, 1996
This publication is intended for domestic building owners and professionals. It discusses the need for the ventilation guidance given in Building Regulations and the methods of providing controlled ventilation.
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Fuel Efficiency Booklet 11 Economic use of refrigeration plant (1998 reprint), 1993
This booklet has been written as a guide for personnel with little or no refrigeration experience who could be responsible for the operation, purchase, specification or appraisal of a refrigeration system.
View Economic use of refrigeration plant (1998 reprint) in The Construction Information Service

Good Practice Guide 118 Managing energy use - minimising running costs of office equipment and related air-conditioning, 1997
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Good Practice Guide 151 Energy efficient refurbishment of public houses - ventilation and air quality, 1995
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New Practice Initial Profile 21 Mechanical ventilation and heat recovery in high rise dwellings, 1993
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General Information Leaflet 24 All electric, air-conditioned office uses heat pump technology, 1994
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Good Practice Guide 256 An introduction to absorption cooling, 1999
Absorption cooling uses heat rather than energy to cool. This is particularly useful when there are ready sources of heat that would normally go to waste. This guide discusses the environmental effects, suitability, CHP, other applications of absorption technology and adsorption cooling, maintenance and reliability as well as design and installation.
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General Information Report 31 Avoiding or minimising the use of air-conditioning, 1995
This report contains summarised information on the present state of the art in the following areas; lighting, thermal mass and admittance, storey height and stratification, building depth, mixed-mode design.
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Good Practice Case Study 396 Cost effective ventilation and cooling in new university buildings - university of Lincolnshire and Humberside, 2001
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New Practice Initial Profile 95 Whole house mechanical ventilation with heat recovery in low-rise social housing, 1996
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Building Research Establishment

Information Paper 14/95 Phase-out of CFCs and HCFCs: options for owners and operators of air-conditioning systems, 1995
The production and import of new CFCs in the European Union was banned from the beginning of 1995. A new EC Regulation has capped the supply of HCFCs and will completely phase out the supply of new HCFCs by 2015 - a date which is likely to be brought forward. The Regulation also restricts the use of HCFCs in certain new equipment. This paper gives owners and operators of air-conditioning systems (and their consultants) advice on options for coping with the CFC and HCFC phase-outs and end-use controls.
View Phase-out of CFCs and HCFCs: options for owners and operators of air-conditioning systems in The Construction Information Service

Information Paper 16/95 Safety and environmental requirements of new refrigerants, 1995
This paper gives information and guidance on the safety and environmental requirements that are associated with the use of new refrigerants to replace CFCs and HCFCs in building air-conditioning systems. It also alerts designers, owners and operators to the requirements of the revised British Standard on refrigeration safety, BS 4434: 1995, and to their statutory duties under UK health and safety legislation.
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Information Paper 4/98 Night ventilation for cooling office buildings, 1998
Night ventilation is a low-energy strategy for cooling a building, providing a more comfortable environment for the occupants during hot daytime periods. It works by using natural or mechanical ventilation to cool the surfaces of the building fabric at night so that they can absorb heat during the day. This paper describes the weather and building design conditions for an effective application of the technique to office buildings. It discusses suitable control strategies and the potential energy saved, some of which can be used for operating fans and other parts of the system.
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Information Paper 18/00 Ammonia refrigerant in buildings: minimising the hazards, 2000
Ammonia is being increasingly used as refrigerant for building air conditioning systems on account of its low environmental impact and excellent refrigeration properties. However, ammonia is highly toxic which means that greater care is needed in its use. This paper shows that the design of safe ammonia systems must also take into account dispersal mechanisms.
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Information Paper 21/00 Air as a refrigerant in air conditioning systems in buildings, 2000
Air can be used in a gas cycle to produce refrigeration. Using air for mainstream refrigeration in buildings has been held back by the perception of poor energy efficiency of air cycle systems. This paper reports on the latest research into building an air cycle system for simultaneous heating and cooling in buildings.
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Information Paper 6/02 Free cooling with displacement ventilation, 2002
Investigates methods of 'free cooling' using appropriate diffusers in typical office environments, without causing thermal discomfort outside the diffuser outflow zone. This opens up the possibility of using free cooling to reduce the energy used for cooling.
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Information Paper 11/04 Perimeter chilled beams, 2004
Passive chilled beams installed in the perimeter of buildings can be highly effective for off-setting direct solar gains and ensuring good thermal comfort in the perimeter zone. Presents the findings of a research project investigating the performance of perimeter chilled beams, and guidance on avoiding the design pitfalls.
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Digest 358 CFCs in buildings, 1992
This Digest is one of a series on issues of environmental significance. It summarises recent and proposed changes to the current phase-out timetables for the CFCs and halons, and options for their replacement. It is now generally accepted that emissions of CFCs and other chlorine-containing substances, including HCFCs and halons, are causing depletion of the ozone layer and that production of these substances must be phased out as soon as is possible. The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer, and an EC Regulation, now require the CFCs and halons to be completely phased out.
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Report 431 Cooling buildings in London: overcoming the heat island, 2001
Presents the results of a long-term monitoring experiment to measure air temperatures at 80 sites around London. Summertime temperatures were then used in a model for a typical office building. Also outlines techniques to reduce the effects of the heat island by careful design including: Alternative cooling strategies, encouraging wind flow and ventilation, using trees, green areas and water features and solar shading.
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Report 477 Ventilation, airtightness and indoor air quality in new homes, 2005
Investigation of ventilation and indoor air quality (IAQ) in homes in England built since 1995. The main part of the project involved a winter (January-March 2002) and summer (July-September2002) period of monitoring of nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds, particulates, temperature and humidity in a sample of 37 homes. The results from the measurements were statistically analysed, based on data from questionnaires, including house characteristics and occupant activity diaries. The statistical analysis includes two stages: simple descriptive statistics of the indoor air quality parameters and ventilation rates measured under different conditions, and bivariate analysis to identify associations between these and possible determinants.
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Building Services Research and Information Association

EU-ENERGIE Research Program Climatic ceilings - technical note: design calculations, 2001
Intended for use by the system designer and allows system selection and design changes to be made. Appendices provide checklists to support the selection, design, installation and handing over of the panel and beam systems.
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EU-ENERGIE Research Program Climatic ceilings and chilled beams: applications of low temperature heating and high temperature cooling, 2001
Provides designers with information during the design process of HVAC systems on the use of chilled ceilings and beams. Different principles and products of chilled ceilings and beams are described, analysed and compared in detail and presented in tables, so as to obtain a quick overview of relevant issues. The design process is described, and information about international standards, regulations and test methods related to thermal comfort is given. Specific problems in building design, contracting, construction and commissioning are discussed and supported with check lists, and attention is also given to the system in use.
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Selection Guide 7/91 Air filters: a selection guide, 1991
Writes to assist air handling manufacturers, designers, specifiers/consultants, installation and maintenance engineers and end users in the selection and use of air filters in ventilation and air conditioning systems in the heating and ventilation industry. Filtration areas covered include any enclosure that people are expected to occupy. Presents information about the basic reasons for filtration, principles of filtration, types of filter media and proprietary devices to permit the user to make an informal selection and be directed to the correct product range suitable for the intended task. It is structured so that the user may start with the critical process of filter selection and application. Includes listing of filter media and their characteristics, filter devices together with performance data and filter devices identified using the Eurovent rating scheme together with typical applications. Covers wider issues such as human requirements of ventilation and international test standards and methods.
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Technical Note TN 1/92 Low temperature air cooling systems design considerations, 1992
This technical note intends to give guidelines to the use of low temperature air systems with particular emphasis on room air movement. These guidelines have been developed from computer-based predictions of the thermal environment in a typical two-person office, cooled by low temperature air supplied through slot diffusers. In addition, an analysis of the potential occurrence of condensation is given.
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Technical Report 9/94 Dynamic energy storage in the building fabric, 1994
The building fabric can be used as a medium for storing cooling and heating energy. This document is based on the results of a sponsored research project conducted to provide published guidance for systems utilising fabric energy storage in conjunction with mechanical ventilation and air conditioning systems.
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Application Guide 10/94.1 Efficient humidification in buildings, 1995
Appropriate humidity levels within buildings may be achieved by either active or passive means. The route chosen is dependent upon whether there is air conditioning in the building, the process undertaken within the building, the degree of control required, and the prevailing climatic conditions. This application guide identifies the factors relevant to humidification for a broad range of humidification applications and sets out a procedure for the selection of humidifiers. In addition, other salient topics such as health hazards are also covered in some detail, together with good practice guides.
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Technical Note TN 8/98 Refurbishment of air-conditioned buildings for natural ventilation, 1998
This guidance for refurbishing air-conditioned buildings to utilise natural ventilation is aimed at buildings where consideration is being given to the removal of mechanical ventilation and/or mechanical cooling plant. The guidance is also particularly appropriate where conventional naturally ventilated buildings are to be upgraded to incorporate passive cooling techniques. The use of mechanical ventilation as part of a mixed mode solution is not precluded however, as it is the only viable option in some cases.
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Code of Practice 17/99 Displacement ventilation and static cooling devices, 1999
The aim of this document is to recommend good, accepted practice for the design and implementation of displacement ventilation systems with and without static cooling devices and is based on previous and current research as well as the views of consultants and manufacturers considered to be experts in this field.
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Technical Note TN 16/2000 Energy efficient chiller control, 2000
This document shows how, by changing control strategy, conventional refrigeration based water chillers can operate more efficiently.
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Building Applications Guide BG 8/2004 Free cooling systems, 2004
Provides an understanding of the types of system and their associated advantages and limitations, the requirements for effective application, the methods of system control, and general guidance on system design and sizing of components. Assists in meeting the targets of Part L of the Building Regulations.
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Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

Knowledge Series 03 Sustainable low energy cooling: an overview, 2005
Gives an overview of the main low energy cooling options available to building services engineers. Its aim is to promote awareness of the alternatives available and their suitability for different applications. Aimed at relevant non-experts such as clients and architects; it should also be of use to more experienced engineers as an accessible overview which can be used in discussions with clients and other members of the design team.
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Applications Manual AM 13 Mixed mode ventilation, 2000
'Mixed mode' is the term used to describe servicing strategies that combine natural ventilation with mechanical ventilation and/or cooling in the most effective manner. This manual includes guidance on the range of issues relating to mixed mode design, operation and maintenance that are likely to affect the actions of the CIBSE member.
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Technical Memoranda TM 23 Testing buildings for air leakage, 2000
Describes how by understanding and appreciating the need for airtight construction in the early stages of design, building engineers and designers will achieve the high controllable ventilation standards demanded by clients. Shows why it is necessary to carry out air leakage testing, sets out acceptable rates of air filtration, and explains what can be done when problems are discovered.
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Technical Memoranda TM 36 Climate change and the indoor environment: impacts and adaptation, 2003
To what extent will climate change increase the occurrence of summertime thermal discomfort, and to what extent will passive measures be able to improve thermal comfort? How effective will different approaches to comfort cooling be under the changing climate? What are the energy use implications of the various strategies?. Addresses these questions through dynamic thermal computer modelling of 13 case study buildings, chosen to provide a cross section of UK building types, including dwellings, schools and offices, and illustrate a range of different approaches to comfort cooling provision.
View Climate change and the indoor environment: impacts and adaptation in The Construction Information Service

Air quality

Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions

Local air quality management guidance notes: air quality and transport, 2000
Gives overview of policies local authorities can use to reduce the effect of road transport on local air quality. Suggests measures that they might include in Air Quality Management Area (AQMA) action plans.
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Local air quality management guidance notes: air quality and land use planning, 2000
Advises on the links between air quality and the planning process. Aims to help local authorities develop action plans to deal with specific air quality problems and create strategies to improve air quality generally.
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Earthscan Publications

Smog alert: managing urban air quality, 1996
This publication examines the causes and scale of urban air pollution, identifies who is most at risk, and which particular health risks various pollutants pose.
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Joint Nature Conservation Committee

Reducing the impact of air pollution on the natural environment, 1995
Outlines the effects that air pollution has on the natural environment of Britain, the regulatory framework for its control, and details the current thinking of the conservation agencies over how such impacts can be reduced.
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Airtightness

Building Research Energy Conservation Support Unit

Good Practice Guide 139 Draughtstripping of existing doors and windows, 1995
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Good Practice Guide 183 Minimising thermal bridging when upgrading existing housing: a detailed guide for architects and building designers, 1996
The Guide examines six different forms of construction: solid bricks walls, traditional cavity wall construction, crosswall construction, concrete framed construction, no fines concrete and large panel systems. The Guide concentrates on masonry construction systems because they often result in thermal bridging problems. Thermal bridges are areas of the fabric where, because of the materials used or the geometry of the construction, heat flows are higher than through the rest of the building. This results in a higher energy requirement for the building but, more importantly, the higher heat flow through the thermal bridge leads to lower internal surface temperatures and an increased risk of mould growth. This can have a much greater impact on energy consumption, as attempts are made to cure the mould by raising internal temperatures or increasing ventilation rates. Moulds are a major source of distress for householders and can cause respiratory and other allergies to sensitive people.
View Minimising thermal bridging when upgrading existing housing: a detailed guide for architects and building designers in The Construction Information Service

Good Practice Guide 227 Selecting energy efficient windows, 1997
This guide will help to enable specifiers to understand the factors affecting energy performance of windows and help them to select the most appropriate specification.
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Building Research Establishment

Information Paper 6/89 Use of BREFAN to measure the airtightness of non-domestic buildings, 1989
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Information Paper 12/93 Heat losses through windows, 1993
Heat losses through windows are shown to be significantly affected by radiator siting (either under the window or on a side-wall), sill depth, curtains, double glazing and low-emissivity glazing. However, trickle ventilators have little effect on heat losses, and further research is required into the influence of window geometry.
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Information Paper 4/06 Airtightness of ceilings. Energy loss and condensation risk, 2006
Describes the airflow routes between a house and its loft and the steps that can be taken to reduce the flow. The methods that can be used to measure the airtightness of ceilings are discussed and a method for assessing the condensation risk, taking account of the airflows, proposed.
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Report 489 Part L explained - the BRE guide, 2006
Highlights the key requirements of Part L of the Regulations 2006 (Conservation of fuel and power), provides further explanation where desirable, and explains the differences between the requirements for dwellings and other buildings. Covers the major changes and their background: the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, the Regulations and approved guidance that implement the changes, designing buildings to meet the new carbon dioxide emission targets, and new standards for work in existing buildings.
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Good Building Guide 67 Part 1 Achieving airtightness: general principles, 2006
Intended to give the best advice on achieving airtightness in new buildings. It is based on data obtained from laboratory testing and observations made while undertaking air leakage audits in buildings. Describes the common air leakage paths and sets out the principles to follow when developing energy efficient construction details.
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Good Building Guide 67 Part 2 Achieving airtightness: practical guidance on techniques - floors, walls and roofs, 2006
Intended to give the best advice on achieving airtightness in new buildings. It is based on data obtained from laboratory testing and observations made while undertaking air leakage audits in buildings. Provide practical guidance on airtightness techniques appropriate to most building types.
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Good Building Guide 67 Part 3 Achieving airtightness: practical guidance on techniques - windows and doors, sealing methods and materials, 2006
Intended to give the best advice on achieving airtightness in new buildings. It is based on data obtained from laboratory testing and observations made while undertaking air leakage audits in buildings. Provide practical guidance on airtightness techniques appropriate to most building types.
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Building Services Research and Information Association

Building Applications Guide BG 4/2006 Airtightness testing. The essential guide to part L2 of the 2006 Building Regulations, 2006
Outlines the requirements of the proposed Building Regulations for 2006 as they apply to new buildings, other than dwellings. Explains how to comply with Part L2A, how to specify an airtightness test, and what the test involves. Concludes with construction details for special attention and describes the diagnostic methods for airtightness. Gives model specification clauses.
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Building Applications Guide BG 11/2004.2 Airtightness testing for new dwellings. The essential guide to part L1 of the 2006 Building Regulations, 2006
Outlines the requirements of the approved Building Regulations for 2006 as they apply to new dwellings. The methodology of airtightness testing techniques is presented along with diagnostic methods such as smoke testing and thermographic surveys.
View Airtightness testing for new dwellings. The essential guide to part L1 of the 2006 Building Regulations in The Construction Information Service

Specification 10/98 Air tightness specifications, 1998
This publication covers; offices, factories and warehouses, cold stores, dwellings, museum and archival storage, and retail stores.
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Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions

Limiting thermal bridging and air leakage: Robust construction details for dwellings and similar buildings, 2001
This first edition of Robust Details has been prepared to assist the construction industry in achieving the performance standards published in the Building regulations approved document L (2002 edition). They are intended to reduce risks and potential problems that can arise as a result of building to higher energy efficiency standards
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Earthscan Publications

Energy rating of residential buildings, 2004
Energy represents a high percentage of the running cost of a building and has a significant impact on the comfort of the occupants. Presents detailed information on energy rating of residential buildings, covering the theoretical and experimental rating techniques. Reviews the state of the art and offers guidance on the in-situ identification of relevant energy values of buildings. Includes contributions from experts at the University of Athens, Greece, the Belgian Building Research Institute, Belgium, the University of Seville, Spain, and the Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden.

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